Gravimetric Determination of Phosphorus in Fertilizer Samples Essay

I. Abstract The purpose of this experiment is to determinethe Phophorus content of fertilizer samples using Gravimetric Analysis. It involves dissolution of the fertilizer sample, precipitation and heating and cooling of the sample. Pooled standard deviations of the two data sets for % Pwet, %Pdry, %P2O5 wet and %P2O5 dry were 5.1448, 5.1472, 11.8436 and 11.8504 respectvely. During the experiment a data rejection for %P and %P2O5 was concluded at approximately 20% and 47%. Determination of the Phosphorus content in fertilizer is vital in quality assurance and in the choosing of a fertilizer grade important for agriculture. II. Introduction Plants require essential nutrients such as Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium or Sulfur to grow. However, most soils lack these macronutrients thus a decrease in food production. In connection with this, the use of fertilizers containing these macronutrients has been part of the agricultural tradition. Fertilizers have in its labels a set of numbers, known as the fertilizer grade that always appear in the form N-P-K, indicates the proportions of essential nutrients present (ie 10-10-10 which means 10% Nitrogen, 10% Phosphate in the form of P2O5, 10% Potassium in the form of K2O). Different organizations worldwide like Association of American Plant Food Control Officials (AAPFCO) in the United States, conduct different tests to assess the accuracy and consistency of the nutrient content with regards to that of the product label and also to ensure quality assurance as part of consumer rights. Analysis of fertilizer can be conducted using Gravimetric Analysis. In Gravimetric Analysis, the product with known composition is resulted from the conversion of the analyte to a soluble precipitate that can be easily filtered and is free from impurities by subjecting it to heat. This product of known composition will then be weighed and the percentage of the analyte in the sample can be determined. In this experiment, the analyte, Phosphorus in the fertilizer will be precipitated as Magnesium Ammonium Phosphate Hexahydrate, MgNH4PO4 ( 6H2O: 5H2O + HPO42- + NH4+ + Mg2+ + OH- ( MgNH4PO4 ( 6H2O (s) (1) The purpose of this experiment is to determine the percentage of Phosphorus (P) and Diphosphorus (P2O5) in the fertilizer sample by the means of Gravimetric Analysis. III. Data and Results In this experiment, the wet (as received) and dry weights of the fertilizer sample, obtained from the previous experiment of moisture determination of the same fertilizer sample were used. Weights were divided into two data sets, Data Set 1 having four (4) trials and Data Set 2 having three (3) trials. The dried sample from the previous experiment from which moisture was determined, was dissolved and is converted into a sparingly soluble precipitate, MgNH4PO4 ( 6H2O which is then filtered and weighed. The filter paper used was weighed to easily determine the weight of the precipitate. The precipitate was then dried and weighed. IV. Discussion This experiment aims to determine the percentage of P and P2O5 in fertilizer sample using Gravimetry. The fertilizer sample from the previous experiment of Moisture Determination was utilized in this experiment. The dried fertilizer sample was dissolved with 40 mL distilled water and was then filtered to obtain a clear filtrate. In Gravimetry, it is important to use a precipitating agent that if not specific, should be selective and would give out a precipitate containing the analyte. This precipitating agent should also give out a precipitate that is easily filtered and washed from impurities, unreactive with the elements present in the atmosphere, of low solubility to lessen the loss of analyte during filtration and washing, and with known composition after drying or heating. In this case, 45 mL of 10% MgSO4 ( 7H2O was added to the filtrate, with 150 mL 2M NH3 as the precipitating agent to obtain the desired precipitate MgNH4PO4 ( 6H2O which contains the analyte P. See Equation 1. While other precipitating agent like NH4Cl can be used, NH3 was used otherwise to ensure that the desired precipitate would be form. The presence of Cl- ions will more likely to attract Mg2+ thus producing MgCl2 precipitates, which do not contain the analyte in this experiment which is P. It should be noted that NH3 is added slowly with continuous stirring to the solution to ensure the growth of the precipitate, resulting to a precipitate that is easier to filter and be freed of impurities. This technique is related to the von Weirman’s ratio wherein the particle size of a precipitate is inversely proportional to the value of Relative Superaturation given by: Relative Supersaturation = [pic] Where: Q= concentration of reactants before precipitation S= solubility of the precipitate Precipitates are either formed by nucleation, or by particle growth. In nucleation, particles join together to form a large mass, usually a result of supersaturation in solutions. It consists of huge amount of precipitate, however, is composed of small particles that are hard to filter. In this experiment, what is desired is particle growth that yields a precipitate of large size but of smaller number. This is possible by further precipitation wherein particles adhere to the surface of initially nucleated particles. The supersaturation state of the solution is eased during constant stirring upon addition of the precipitating agent, thus promoting particle growth rather nucleation. With respect to the von Weirman’s ratio, the higher the value of the ratio, the higher the possibility of getting smaller particles, thereby promoting nucleation, contrary to a lower value of the ratio which promotes particle growth that will yield larger precipitates that is important in this experi ment. After the addition of the precipitating agent with constant stirring, the mixture was allowed to stand at room temperature for 15 mins. It is important to let the mixture stand, without any agitation or external forces acting on it to let digestion to occur. Digestion is necessary to allow reprecipitation, wherein particles will adhere to the initially small precipitates, and to expel water molecules thus lessening the surface area available for adsorption which causes impurities to obtain larger particles with greater purity and easier filterability. After 15 mins, the mixture was filtered using the preweighed filter paper. The filter paper that was preweighed was kept in the dessicator until further use to keep the moisture from adhering to the filter paper. Preweighing the filter paper was helpful for easy determination of the weigth of the precipitate. During filtration, precipitate was washed with distilled water in small portions of 5mL twice. For each washing, the distilled water was poured into the beaker where precipitation occured to accumulate the remaining precipitates that adhered to the sides of the beaker. After washing with distilled water, two 10mL portions of 95% ethanol were used for second washing. The use of 95% ethanol, becaue of its volatility thus will dry the precipitate faster, will ensure that no more water is trapped in the pores between the precipitates, minimal solubility loss and particles of small size will not loosen up and pass through the pores of the filter paper. Smaller portions of the wash liquid were used to ensure that the precipitate will still be intact and nosignificant loss in the amount of the precipitate due to the overflowing of washes liquid. The filter paper containing the precipitate was then heated inside the oven set a t 110˚C for 1 hour and was cooled in a dessicator for 15 min. After this, the weight of the precipitate was determined by subtracting the value of the preweighed filter paper with the weight of the filter paper including the precipitate. Even though Gravimetry is considered as one of the efficient and less expensive ways of determining a fertilizer component, this technique is still not fool proof and errors due to determinate and indeterminate factors may lead to an erroneous result. One of these errors is the fast addition of the precipitating agent and low impact of agitation that leads to the production of larger amount of small particles that may pass through the filter paper thus having lesser amount of precipitate, and a lower value for the P or P2O5 content in the sample. On the other hand, since while the mixture stands in room temperature without any coverings, contaminants like dust particles may be included in the mixture, contributing weight to the precipitate, giving a higher yield. This high yield will give a P or P2O5 content of the sample higher than its actual value. It can be observed from Table 3 that the range of % P and % P2O5 lies between approximately 6% to 13% and 15% to 30% respectively with 20% and 47% suspicious values since it is almost double of the values in range. By performing the Q test, the values were confirmed to be accpetable with regards to the actual value and values in the population, or rejected. Table 4.1 and 4.2 shows the values that were rejected and accepted for each data set. Notice that the 20% and 47% for % P and % P2O5 respectively, both belonging to Data Set 1 were rejected with 95% confidence level, meaning that the Qexp exceeded the value of the Qtabulated. Of all the trials in both Data Set 1 and 2, the group with values similar to that of the rejected values were the ones who obtained the greatest amount of precipitate. See Table 2. This rejection or errounous error in the data can be attributed to the determinate and indeterminate errors in the experiment. One more error that could be the reason for this rejection is the personal error in terms of the reading of the analytical balance. Also, because of this rejection in data, aside from the fact that Data Set 2 has lower number of population, Data Set 2 parameters for Measure of Precision are closer to each other, with the dried samples having greater values than that of the wet sample. Iti s because dried sample are purer than that of the wet sample containing still moisture and other interfering agent to getting the actual % P and % P2O5. V. Summary and Conclusions In this experiment, it was determined that the fertilizer sample has % P range of 6% to 13% with % P2O5 from 15% to 30%. However, the usual types of fertilizers with phosphates contain a minimum of 42.5 % water soluble phosphate and 46% total phosphate by weight, as in the case of Triple Superphosphate or 85 % water soluble and 20% available in Superphosphate. It should be noted that the theoretical values will vary depending on the type of fertilizer used in the experiment. Despite the data rejection that occurred, overall, it can be said that the experiment is a success since the objectives of the experiment such as performing gravimetric analysis in the determination of phosphorus content and to know the principle in separation by precipitation were achieved. Yet, it is recommended that there would be a specific manner of putting the precipitating agent, like addition dropwise or certain amounts per second or stirring so as to ensure the proper formation of crystals needed by the experiment. It should also be observed that upon digestion, or letting the mixture stand without agitation, the mixture should be covered to avoid impurities present in the atmosphere. VI. References Chapter 3: Gravimetry. California State University, Dominguez Hills. < http://www.csudh.edu/oliver/che230/textbook/ch03.htm> Accessed 17 January 2013. Fischer, R.B. and Peters, D.G. Quantitative Chemical Analysis 3rd ed. 1968; pp42-43;49 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. AGP – Fertilizer Specifications. http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/core-themes/theme/spi/plantnutrition/fertspecs/en/. Accessed 04 January 2013. Rehm, G. et al. Understanding Phosphorus Fertilizers: Phophorus in the Agricultural Environment. University of Minnesota: Extension. 2010. < http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/cropsystems/dc6288.html> Accessed 17 January 2013. Skoog, D. et al. Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry 6th ed. Saunder College Publishing. 1992; pp72-80

Being a Global Citizen

Global citizenship is a term that is widely used for different purposes and meanings. There is no single agreement on the meaning of global citizenship. As we all know, the world is changing faster than most of us can keep up with, technology is one of those drivers of change and people are becoming more connected to each other around the world than ever before through internet usage. As people become more connected they begin to see themselves becoming a citizen not only through their natural birth place but a citizen of the world. There are many ways to understand citizenship or being a global citizen.Based on the legal-political view, citizenship is a status granted on individuals by political communities that they belong in. It can also be defined as people giving allegiance to a country, they have to accept and uphold the duties, responsibilities and exercise the rights that they are entitled to as citizens such as obeying the laws, paying taxes, serving in the military forces i f they need to, and have rights to participate in the political life by voting and participating in elections. As a citizen it is important to maintain law and order to society.Students around the world are embracing cultural diversity and the school system is teaching the students about them. Throughout global media and technologies, virtually everyone on earth is exposed to foreign ideas and even our own communities are more diversified than ever before. The most important thing to understand about cultural globalization is it is largely driven by corporations, rather than countries. A citizen of the world is someone’s awareness of the world as a global community and recognizing the rights and responsibilities of citizens within it.As a citizen of the world we must stand up to solve poverty, stand up to environmental degradation that is tearing apart our land, stand up and protect our country if it is being threatened, and be an activist against anything that deprive anyone from their rights, life, and pursuit of happiness. It is important to recognize we are not just citizens of our respected countries but citizens in a larger global community. Economically, with the rise of a global economy, we are now more dependent upon people who don’t live in our local communities.Businesses are not restricted to one geographic area or group of the people instead they are everywhere. We are no longer a citizen of our own country, but citizens in a global community. These changes provide opportunities for great collaboration and we can find a way to work together. Global citizenship is seen as a way to reduce differences in quality of life among countries, reduce poverty, and protect the environment. Globalization is seen as a cause that could address worldwide issues such as hunger, malnutrition, and clean water. Protecting the environment and natural resources also becomes part of this concept of citizenship.Being a global citizen is not necessarily bein g a good global citizen. By saying that I mean, we don’t have to be a really rich or anything to be global citizens; just the little step to do something is all it takes. Standing up for something you believe in, helping out the unfortunate, stopping someone from saying a racist comment is all part of being global citizens. A citizen of the world would be one who sees an opportunity to influence a global decision and accepts the behavior that comes with it. All individuals have duties and responsibility of doing that.

Helen Burns in Jane Eyre

Though Helen Burns is a short- lived character, her appearance in the book is significant on a symbolic level. In the novel, Helen epitomizes religious devotion and Christian principles, with the idea of ‘love your enemies’ summarizing her beliefs.Helen’s religious beliefs define her character and are referenced to help demonstrate the missing relationships in her and Jane’s life, as a result of being orphaned. Her religious conduct provides a comfort to her, and later on a comfort to Jane when confronted with her dying friend.The friendship formed with Helen greatly affects Jane and teaches her a lot, including how to mask her passion. Helen is the first person we see Jane form a friendly and intimate relationship with, increasing the impact and significance of Helen’s death scene; which can be viewed as a pivotal moment in Jane’s life, and a possible symbol of the death of her passion. Helen’s references to religious teaching can be u sed in the novel to demonstrate missing relationship dynamics in the girl’s life and help explore the friendship that they form.For example, Helen refers to God as ‘maker, father, friend, universal parent. ’ It is significant that God has these roles, as they are foundation figures in life that the girl’s have fallen short of. It is possible that part of the appeal of God to Helena, and soon to Jane, is because these individuals are not present in their life.This would demonstrate and explain the importance of religion in Helen’s life and the comfort God brings to her. Similarly, Helen suggests that one of the appeals to God and religion is the opportunity it provides to create a relationship.When Helen tells Jane ‘I love him, I believe he loves me,’ she is presenting ides of reciprocity and balance in a relationship. These ideas are contrasted in the relationships Jane and Helen have experienced in Mrs Reed’s house, the orphanag e and at Lowood.However, this can be a reminder to us that these ideas are seen with in the relationship between Helen and Jane; emphasizing the importance of their friendship to each other and further increasing the heartbreak of her death for Jane. Helen represents a model of Christianity that stresses tolerance and acceptance.Helen’s compliant attitude to life is center to her character and is significant in the story as it has a great impact on Jane. Helen Burns is a character incapable of anger or vengeance. This can be seen through the bullying of Helen by Mrs. Scratcherd.As Jane observes Mrs. Sctratcherd continually ‘make her an object of constant notice’ she finally lashes out at Helen for not having cleaned her nails. Helen ‘without being told, unloosened her pinafore,’ and Mrs Scratcheard striked her a dozen times. Helen is unresponsive.Jane is confused by Helena’s patient response to mistreatment and later tells Helen that ‘If I were in your place, I should dislike her, I should resist her. ’ However, her ability to remain graceful and calm even in the face of (what Jane Sees as) unjustified punishment makes a great impression on Jane who ‘heard her with wonder’ as Helen explained the way she conducts herself. It is possibly through Helen Burn’s example that Jane learns to ‘mask’ her passion. As well as being an ideal for the Christian ethos, it could be said that the character of Helen Burns possesses Christ like characteristics.Helen’s suffering of rejection at Lowood can be compared to Jesus’ suffering of persecution. Furthermore, her response to suffering can be said to mirror those of Jesus. The idea of ‘Love your neighbor,’ summarizes Helen’s beliefs; she never passes judgment or rebels, and she seeks to forgive those who hurt her.This view of Helen should be noted as it links to and can emphasize the idea of Helen being a â €˜teacher’ to Jane, and the large impact that Helen will make on Jane’s life. While Jane and Helen are very dieeferent character’s, Jane very much feels she can relate to Helen and learns from her influence.Like Jane, Helen is an orphan who longs for a home. In the scene before her death, Helen tells Jane she is ‘going to my long home- my last home. ’ This is one example of the difference in the two girls beliefs. Helen believes that she will find her home in heaven rather than England.This conversation about life after death contrasts what adult’s in Jane’s life have taught her and similarly goes against Jane’s previous fears regarding ghosts, death and the supernatural. In this moment, however, we as the reader see Jane is  comfortable literally next to death, a concept she feared when living with the reads.This is the first intimate moment we see Jane experiencing- Jane is nestled in close to her friend, whose arm is aro und her. In this moment we feel Jane is contempt and comfortable. It is possible that Jane’s attitude to death was a fear of the unknown, which now Helen has made more familiar, therefor providing her with the strength to cope so close to death. Helen’s death can be seen symbolically on many levels.One interpretation of Helen’s death is that it symbolizes the death of Jane’s passion. The name ‘Helen Burns’ itself implies destruction, fire and burning. Fire is a recurring theme throughout the beginning of the book, which is referred to to represent the fiery and passionate nature of Jane’s character.As well as this, during the short friendship between Helen and Jane, we can notice the awe in which Jane has for the levelheaded attitude that Helena carries. Therefore, on both a literary and symbolic term, the death of Helen burns suggests death or destruction to Jane’s passion.

Working as General Practitioner How You Stop smoking in pregnant women Essay

Working as General Practitioner How You Stop smoking in pregnant women ( health Promotion cessation of smoking During Pregnency) - Essay Example The use of tobacco and oral contraceptives often leads to stroke, venous thrombosis, and pulmonary embolism. There is also a growing awareness of the smoking that occurs during pregnancy. Smoking during pregnancy has been associated with growth retardation of the fetus, increased infant death rate and sudden infant death syndrome. Not only does smoking by-products pass through the placental barrier but they also are transmitted to the baby in breast milk. Breast milk production is also often decreased when mom smokes. Statistics show that mothers who smoke are less likely to breast feed. [1] Therefore both mothers and babies miss out on the importance of this process. Infants who have been exposed to tobacco have an increased risk of low birth weight and death at the time of birth. Low birth weight babies can also be very prone to a number of disorders including learning disabilities, diminished attention span, and increased risk of medical problems. [1] There are also a number of birth defects that are associated with smoking during pregnancy. Those include cleft lip/palate, clubfoot and limb defects. Children’s risks continue with increased childhood infection, bronchitis, negative impact on the overall respiratory health and lung development. It causes a reduction in pulmonary function and development which affects ability to exercise later in life. Last, the fact that mother smokes increases the risk that the child will be a smoker. [1] Haslam and Draper (2001) published a white paper on the need to stop smoking in pregnancy. The Secretaries of State for Health published in 1998 a paper that was reviewed by Haslam. The target set at that time was to reduce the amount of smokers during pregnancy by 15% by the year of 2010. At the time semi-structured interviews were held with pregnant women who smoke in one practice. There were 40 participants. The aim was to understand what motivates someone who is pregnant to smoke. The age range of the

To what extent is US policy in the Gulf region driven primarily by Dissertation

To what extent is US policy in the Gulf region driven primarily by energy needs - Dissertation Example Retrieved from, http://schirachreport.com/index.php/2011/01/21/old-lobbies-prevent-new-energy-policies/ Teixeira, R, 2010. Public Opinion Snapshot: Public turns against offshore drilling. Centre for American progress, retrieved from, http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/snapshot062810.html The Progress Report, 2010. Big giveaways to big Oil. Retrieved from, http://www.barbrastreisand.com/us/article/big-giveaways-big-oil Weiss, D. September 2010. GOP â€Å"Pledge to America† is an oath to Big Oil- written by a former EXXon lobbysist. ClimateProgress. Retrieved from, http://climateprogress.org/2010/09/23/gop-pledge-to-america-big-oil-exxon-lobbyist-brian-wild/ Literature review summary: With approximately 70 % of the global oil reserves located in the Middle Eastern regions, which includes Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iran, the United Arab Emirates, and Iraq, these group of countries have formed the group of leading exporters of oil, especially in the post WWII era. Sampson, (1975) and Tanzer (1974), into their books gives us detailed insight into the pre WWII era when the oilfields were in the hands of the colonels British empire, and how slowly US took over after emerging as the chief power during the WWII. Tanzer in his book especially traces the rise of US as the main global power, the rise of strong oil companies and the formation of the famous US oil lobby, and it’s taking control over the European oil trade market. Kinzer, (2008) in his book traces the interference of US oil lobby in Iran internal politics during the 1950s to bring in the Shah of Iran (pro-US) as the head of the country, so that the oil fields would be effectively under the control of the US oil firms. Klare 2001, in his book traces the rise in strength of the US oil firms and the beginning of USA’s relentless drive to gain global energy supremacy. Cordesman (1999) gives us detailed insight into US’s ever-increasing oil consumption rate, and the governmentâ⠂¬â„¢s unceasing drive to gain energy security, which drove the US oil companies and the government to attempt to bring all the oil rich countries under their control. These books show us how US created Saudi Arabia and established its control over the oilfields, while Iraq managed to give the western countries the slip by nationalising their oil fields, which finally led to the 2003 war with Iraq. Bennett, et al. (2007), Sepehri (2002), Kay (2001) in their articles give us an insight into the true nature of the 1991 and 2003 Iraq war and the actual reason behind this war. They show very clearly, as what were conditions that ultimately led to the 2003 war, and established clear links oil firms and the Bush regime. Phillip, 2003, very categorically shows in his paper the actual nature of the war and how the oil lobbyists stood to gain from the2003 war, while various news articles in BBC, Times, and CNN also shows strong link between US oil firms, US government, US foreign polices and the US-Iraq war in 2003. Articles by Lee (2005); Weiss (2010) and Paolo Schirach (2011) show the strong link that exists between US’s ineffective energy saving policies and the connection between government officials. These articles put up figures that reveal the huge donations made by the oil firms to the Republican party, and consequent failure on the part of the US government to draw up strong energy saving policies in the last 5 decades, after the end of the WWII, when the consumption of oil suddenly became high owing to the arrival of automobiles in the US

Evaluation of Sources Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Evaluation of Sources - Assignment Example 1. My research topic is biodiesel. This publication helps to broaden the scope of the topic by providing relevant information regarding alternative sources of biodiesel and also more benefits of this product. 2. Being an affiliate to the state government of Texas, the office is mandated to provide reliable and accurate report to the public. This therefore means that the report and the information contained are credible. 1. This report has borrowed information from various expert areas. These include the U.S Department of Energy, the Office of Scientific and Technical information, U.S. Department of Transportation – alternative fuel regulations and Environment Protection Agency. This makes the report accurate and reliable for the study. 3. The main purpose of this report is to explain in details all the facts concerning the history and the production of biodiesel in Texas. The motivation for this report is the fact that Texas is the leading state in the production of biodiesel in America. 1. This post is related to my topic, biodiesel in that to explore more about biodiesel and its use, I will require to learn more about the variety of blends of biodiesel available. This will help in giving a relevant argument. 2. It will help me explore the amount of carbon emission from each of these blends. With this information, it will be possible to explore in depth the efficiency of biodiesel in reducing air pollution. The information contained in this post gives the details of each blend of biodiesel and the amount of pure biodiesel in each. For example, B20 is explained as consisting of 20% biodiesel and 80% petroleum oil. 3. This will help in calculation of the amount of carbon that B20 will emit. Since some of this information is not contained in this post, this source will help us to identify what more information we need to cover the topic. 1.

Obamas Need for Help Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Obamas Need for Help - Essay Example To handle the presentation, after the three views are presented, a synthesis will be presented for Obama, since this form is consistent with what he ought to be doing for the United States. From the thoughts of the philosophers, gathering the possible solutions on the part of the president shall then be formulated to assume the different procedures of creating the most efficient approaches to meeting the needs of the government and the present American society. Considerably, through this process, the attention needed for the different aspects of the government of Obama could be provided which is highly assisted through the idealisms of the most known thinkers of the history of the human civilization. With the Global Crisis in place, the magic question is, "How should Obama handle the economic and monetary policies of the United States so that a good number "may pursue the full measure of their happiness" How can Obama show that his administration will be much, much different from previous administrations There are the essential questions for the discussion. Everything begins with an idea. For every idea in that exists in the world of ideas, there exists a counterpart in the world of objects (Plato, Internet). If wealth in the real world is disappearing and more people are losing money each day, might we not consider that the root cause of everything is in the world of ideas How Americans are thinking of poverty and lack. This mentality is damaging since once this evil is born in the world of ideas, it will take form in the world of matter. In our case, evil is the current financial crisis. Taking all these things together, people ought to create money in their mind (Plato, Internet).. By first doing it, it will be possible for the creation of money and prosperity by people mindful to work and trade. Martin Luther on the US Economy "First of all, we should acknowledge the hand of God in our current crisis, and it is only just to say that it is the punishment of the Just God to an unjust nation" (Luther: Internet). On the economy, it has been practiced of old to tax the subjects and people in order to fund wars. The root of all these problems is the unjust tax structure, and the unjustified use of credit. This love of money has rooted in the Institutions of the United States that unless it will repent of her sins, no hope can be offered. John Locke on the US Economy The state should intervene in the crisis. After all, the people has entrusted their will to the government in a social contract. However, it is questionable whether the government should take so drastic things like nationalization of bankrupt companies (STCG: Internet). This shall only give undue burden to people because taxpayers' money shall be used. Obama's Synthesis of the Three Advices on the Economy For Obama, it was indeed the fault of "the irresponsibility of some" that the United States is in real trouble. The proposals by Locke and Luther are good and pro-people. This should be done, but this will be hard. Only time will tell if this could be implemented, but for a start, cutting costs like pulling out of Iraq is the least that this government could do. For Plato, it seems that he wanted Ron Paul to win. Supposed Paul is really right, this cannot be implemented

International law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

International law - Essay Example 2002). Under the principle of restrictive sovereign immunity, states will only be immune from suit if it is exercising government functions but not when it is doing private acts or entering into commercial transactions (Tunks M. 2002). When the immunity of the state from suit is restricted, the immunity of its officials is also restricted. Accordingly, there are three distinct principles that involve the idea of the immunity of the head of state and other government officials who are visiting other countries like the United States. These three principles are the state sovereign immunity principle, the diplomatic immunity principle and the head of state immunity principle (Tunks 2002). The origins of the principle of head-of-state immunity derives from the idea that the state and its rulers are one and the same ( Mallory J. 1986). As the alter ego of the state, the state officials are therefore accorded with some degree of immunity which, like that of the immunity of the state itself, is subject to restrictions. Although there are some decided cases involving the immunity of state officials from prosecution for international offences, this area had remain gray for most part. If we take a closer look at the laws and treaties governing the United States and its visiting foreign state officials, there has not really been a clear cut policy of government on the extent of the immunity enjoyed by state officials form prosecution for international offences (Bederman D. 2001). We shall discuss this principle more thoroughly in the later part of the paper. On the other hand, diplomatic immunity is anchored on the principle that diplomats are representatives of their country and that without such immunity; they will not be able to carry out property their official functions. Under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the purpose of diplomatic immunity was clearly

Case 1-3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Case 1-3 - Assignment Example Consumer behavior can be applied in the personal life experiences in relation to the preferences and choices. Basically, they apply in those products that we tend to buy over and over again without much thought about the other competitive similar products in the market. It is also related to the willingness of a consumer to switch to another brand or stick to a particular brand over the ages. This is even shown by the rejection of other brands that may have been introduced by the same company as a mode of improvement of the initial and established brand (Costanzo, 2012). 2. Although the same consumers that purchase goods and services are humans, there is a great difference in their actions and conducts in relation to the preferences and modes of selection. Since the consumer behaviors involve the use, disposal and reuse of goods and services, it is a representation of the many facets of human behavior. There are thus several features that are related in both human behavior and consumer behavior. For instance, personality and the social class play a vital role in determining how both humans and consumers behave. Thus it is the principles of human psychology such as scarcity, authority and consistency that shape consumer behavior. Human beings in general have the tendency to choose from what is offered in life. However, on the other hand, consumers tend to choose what they want because most of the time they are the bosses who make the decisions on what they want for themselves. In this sense, human behavior can change from time to time. Nonetheless, consumer behavior is more of permanent and takes a lot of effort to change. Another difference is that consumer behavior is based on perception, learning and personality while human behavior is based on availability. 3. There are a number of factors that would have led to the failure on the introduction part of the New coke and the OK coke. One of the major factors would have been the need to

The Sales Force Technology Essay Example for Free

The Sales Force Technology Essay Forbes Firms continue to struggle with the implementation of sales force technology tools and the role they play in sales representative performance. This research expands previous literature in the area of sales force automation (SFA) and customer relationship management (CRM) by looking at the consequences after technology adoption by a sales force. Data were gathered from three sources to include 662 sales representatives, 60 sales managers, and ï ¬ rm archival data. Using structural equation modeling, our ï ¬ ndings indicate that SFA usage has a direct impact on effort, thereby reducing number of hours worked, and CRM usage has a direct positive impact on adaptive selling behaviors. Moreover, experience moderates the relationship between CRM usage and adaptive selling. Discussion, limitations, and directions for future research are also discussed. As competition increases and technology advances, organizations continue to seek ways to adjust to changing business environments. This is especially true in the personal selling context where salespeople are recognized as the boundary spanners and are expected to be relationship managers (Kotler 1984). Today’s salesperson is constrained to do more in less time, and technological advancements have become an integral part of the personal selling and sales management process. Foreseeing this changing environment, Leigh and Tanner (2004) stressed the necessity for sales organizations to focus on technology-related strategies, business processes, and applications, and called on sales researchers to put forth theoretical models and empirical studies investigating these emerging issues. Notably, sales force technology usage has changed the methods of selling. Salespeople are no longer selling just a â€Å"product†; instead, they are providing a valuable â€Å"solution† to customer problems. Anderson and Dubinsky (2004) discussed the concept of consultative selling, where a salesperson acts as an expert and provides customized solutions. This role requires salespeople to develop a technological orientation to access, analyze, and communicate information in order to establish a strong relationship with customers (Hunter and  Adam Rapp (Ph.D., University of Connecticut), Assistant Professor of Marketing, College of Business Administration (Market ing), Kent State University, [emailprotected] Raj Agnihotri (MBA, Oklahoma City University), Ph.D. candidate, College of Business Administration (Marketing), Kent State University, [emailprotected] Lukas P. Forbes (Ph.D., University of Kentucky), Assistant Professor of Marketing, Ford College of Business, Western Kentucky University, [emailprotected] Perreault 2007). Sales technology enables salespeople answering the queries of customers to effectively provide competent solutions. This can lead to strong relationships between a salesperson and a customer. Thus, technology tools are used not only for smoothing the work process but they also have strategic utilizations. To this point, numerous models investigating technology acceptance have been postulated in the literature (Compeau, Higgins, and Huff 1999; Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw 1989; Venkatesh and Davis 2000; Venkatesh et al. 2003). These studies focus mainly on ï ¬ nding and examining the variables inï ¬â€šuencing salespeople’s motivation, or attitudes to adopt technology (Avlonitis and Panagopoulos 2005; Jones, Sundaram, and Chin 2002; Keillor, Barshaw, and Pettijohn 1997; Morgan and Inks 2001; Pullig, Maxham, and Hair 2002; Schillewaert et al. 2005; Speier and Venkatesh 2002). Notably, most existing research has focused on technology adoption with a few notable exceptions. For example, Ahearne et al. (2008) and Hunter and Perreault (2007) investigated the mediating effects of relationship-forging tasks, and Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp (2005) proposed moderating effects of training and support on links between different types of sales technology use (adoption) and sales performance. However, there is still a need to investigate the links between technology use and performance (Sundaram et al. 2007). Within this study, we make two extensions to the prior research. First, we shift the focus from technology adoption to technology usage and consequence (Hunter and Perreault 2007; Sundaram et al. 2007). The rationale for this diversion is that the success of technology acceptance resides â€Å"not simply in whether or not salespeople adopt technology, but whether or not adoption (i.e. use) actually improves performance† (Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp 2005, p. 380). For this purpose, we ground our arguments in the technology-to-performance  chain (TPC) m odel, which explores the link between technology and an individual’s performance and postulates that â€Å"performance impacts will depend increasingly upon task–technology ï ¬ t rather than utilization† (Goodhue and Thompson 1995, p. 216). Second, this research focuses on the multidimensionality of the technology usage construct. Hunter and Perreault (2006; 2007) made a distinction between sales force automation (SFA) and customer relationship management (CRM) tools and reinvigorated the issue of sales technology and its effectiveness. We extend that distinction. They suggested that SFA and CRM technologies should be considered as two different sales technology tools, and that â€Å"different use of technology have differential effects on various aspects of performance . . . thus, how a sales representative uses technology and on which behavioral tasks (work processes) matters† (Hunter and Perreault 2007, p. 30). Aligning with this logic, we perceive this new research direction as a valuable addition to an already established and rich literature of sales technology. The purpose of this research study, therefore, is to expand research with regard to the different dimensions of technology usage by investigating th eir impact on sales representative’s behavior that inï ¬â€šuences performance. We also investigate the role of salesperson experience within this model. THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT As mentioned previously, examining the relationship between technology acceptance and salesperson performance has only recently gained mainstream attention; however, studies investigating this link report positive ï ¬ ndings. For example, researchers have documented that the growing use of technology tools inï ¬â€šuences salesperson performance positively (Ahearne, Srinivasan, and Weinstein 2004) by enhancing sales efï ¬ ciency and sales effectiveness (Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp 2005). It has been argued that increasing the use of technology encourages salesperson knowledge  attainment, which further improves his or her performance (Ko and Dennis 2004). More recently, Hunter and Perreault (2006) suggest that salespeople’s technology orientation inï ¬â€šuences their internal role performance. In another study, Sundaram et al. (2007) theorize that technology use and technology impact on performance are directly proportional to each other. They provide empirical evidence suggesting that the extent to which salespeople use technology may improve overall sales performance. Bringing new insights into this subject, Hunter and Perreault (2007) propose new behavioral mechanisms that relate to sales representative performance. Speciï ¬ cally, they suggest that through relationship-forging tasks, salespeople are able to exploit different dimensions of technology utilization (i.e., accessing, analyzing, and communicating information), which in turn, affect different facets of sales performance. Our research builds on the logic presented by previous researchers regarding the consideration of different dimensions of technology use and their differential effects on salespeople’s behavior. To provide theoretical grounding, we base our conceptual framework on the TPC model proposed by Goodhue and Thompson (1995). The TPC model emphasizes that in order to see a positive link between technology and performance, â€Å"the technology must be utilized, and the technology must be a good ï ¬ t with the tasks it supports† (Goodhue and Thompson 1995, p. 213, emphasis in original). Notably, tasks are viewed as activities performed by individuals to achieve outputs and technologies are tools that help them to perform these tasks. The use of certain applications of technology depends on the speciï ¬ c characteristics of the assigned task. Within the sales context, salespeople carry out operational (e.g., learning about existing and new products, generating automated report s) as well as strategic (e.g., identifying most important customers, preparing sales presentations based on customers’ speciï ¬ c needs) activities and need different tools to help perform these activities. Moreover, the TPC model highlights the importance of an individual’s characteristics (e.g., training or experience), suggesting their impact on how â€Å"easily and well† one will use the technology tools (Goodhue and Thompson 1995, p. 216). The current research contributes to this idea by suggesting that the effect of technology use on salespeople’s behavior will  depend upon whether they are using the technology for operational purpose (i.e., SFA) or for strategic purpose (i.e., CRM). Also, our framework incorporates salesperson experience to assess the inï ¬â€šuence of individual characteristics. Dimensions of Sales Technology Usage In a broad sense, technology is deï ¬ ned as â€Å"an ability to act, a competence to perform, translating materials, energy and information in one set of states into another, more highly valued set of states† (Metcalfe 1995, p. 34). In a sales research domain, sales technology describes information technologies aiding or enabling the sales task performance (Hunter and Perreault 2007). In the past, scholars from different research streams have raised the issue concerning the different dimensions and aspects of technology use and proposed several frameworks that support this concept (Goodhue and Thompson 1995; Orlikowski 1992). Although previous researchers build their arguments on different concepts, in essence, they all agree there are different aspects and dimensions of technology use. Considering the fact that different dimensions of technology use should be employed for different purposes, sales managers must develop and support an environment where salespeople use technology in accordance with the required behavior. For example, salespeople involved in operational activities such as exchanging information with colleagues  and managers, taking or tracking inventory levels, or learning about existing, new, and competitive products will employ different technology tools as compared to situations where they execute strategic activities such as identifying potential customers, identifying the most important customers from the list of current customers, or working on improvement of sales presentation skills. Thus, it will be beneï ¬ cial for sales managers, as well as for salespeople, to understand how employing different technology tools will inï ¬â€šuence performance-enhancing behaviors (Hunter and Perreault 2007). Accordingly, we view the use of SFA and the use of CRM as two dimensions of sales technology based on their level of speciï ¬ city for inï ¬â€šuencing different salespersons’ behaviors. SFA usage, with an operational orientation, includes the utilization of technological to ols supporting the routine sales  functions (Jacobs 2006). CRM usage, with a strategic orientation, includes methods and employing technology tools that help salespeople develop sales strategies (Rigby and Ledingham 2004). Importantly, both the routine sales functions and strategic sales activities that a salesperson engages in can develop, sustain, and strengthen customer relationships. Use of SFA Technology Hunter and Perreault suggest that SFA technology includes â€Å"tools that are intended to make repetitive (administrative) tasks more efï ¬ cient† (2007, p. 17). Highlighting its potential beneï ¬ ts, previous research views SFA use as a competitive equivalence (Morgan and Inks 2001) and suggests that it enhances the â€Å"precision† of salespeople’s activities (Honeycutt et al. 2005) by providing fast and reliable information ï ¬â€šow among customers, salespeople, and ï ¬ rms (Speier and Venkatesh 2002). Sales managers and salespeople alike identify SFA as a tool to enhance efï ¬ ciency (Erffmeyer and Johnson 2001) and to improve productivity (Engle and Barnes 2000; Pullig, Maxham, and Hair 2002). SFA tools assist with routine tasks, allow salespeople to focus on re lationship-oriented activities, and free up time for more customer-centric tasks (Cotteleer, Inderrieden, and Lee 2006). To attain the advantages of SFA, salespeople need to understand the speciï ¬ c purpose of using SFA. Keeping this in mind, we adapt the Rivers and Dart’s conceptualization of SFA that describes it as transforming â€Å"manual sales activities to electronic processes through the use of various combinations of hardware and software applications† (1999, p. 59). We view SFA as a tool that converts repetitive and routine manual processes to automated processes, and assists salespeople trying to operate in an efï ¬ cient and timely manner. Examples of SFA tools could include programs such as quarterly automated sales reports and calendaring tools. The domain for SFA applications includes the attainment and storage of information. However, the information being utilized,  analyzed, and obtained with the help of SFA tools is unlike that from CRM tools. Use of CRM Technology Unlike the routine purpose of SFA applications, CRM technology usage focuses on relationship and st rategy building (Rigby, Reichheld, and Schefter 2002). Day views CRM as â€Å"a cross-functional process for achieving a continuing dialogue with customers† (2001, p. 1). CRM is also described as a â€Å"business strategy that includes information technology  to provide an enterprise with a comprehensive, reliable, and integrated view of its customer base† (Zikmund, McLeod, and Gilbert 2003, p. 3). In essence, salespeople use CRM technology tools for developing and managing customer relationships (Yin, Anderson, and Swaminathan 2004). This characterization is aligned with the analysis aspect of sales technology use suggested by Hunter and Perreault (2007). They deï ¬ ned it as the degree to which salespeople depend on technology â€Å"to study and synthesize data and understand the implications of data relevant to the demands of their sales jobs† (Hunter and Perreault 2007, p. 21). Outlining the functionality of sales technology, Widmier, Jackson, and McCabe (2002) postulate different sales functions (e.g., presentations, informing, communications, sales reporting) that can be supported by sales technology. Importantly, these functions of sales technology can be separated on the basis of whether their strategic orientation is â€Å"customer† centric or â€Å"back-ofï ¬ ce† centric (Geiger and Turley 2006). We characterize the use of CRM as utilizing customer-centric technology tools that help salespeople formulate strategies to achieve effectiveness in their selling methods. Therefore, the optimal utilization of CRM tools will depend on how well salespeople assimilate the information obtained through data patterns in their job-speciï ¬ c behaviors. We believe that the use of CRM technology tools not only accelerates the regular sales operation, but also aids salespeople in developing and managing long-term customer relationships. CONCEPTUAL MODEL DEVELOPMENT In light of the above-mentioned arguments, we propose a model (Figure 1) examining the effects of SFA and CRM on salespeople’s behaviors after technology adoption and how these behaviors can inï ¬â€šuence s alesperson performance. Effort A salesperson’s effort, in general, can be characterized as â€Å"persistence—in terms of the length of time devoted to work and continuing to try in the face of failure† (Sujan, Weitz, and Kumar 1994, p. 40), and it can be assessed via a litany  of measures. Speciï ¬ cally, â€Å"the duration of time spent working and the intensity of work activities† are viewed as components of effort (Brown and Peterson 1994, p. 71); other research studies measure effort by the number of hours invested by salespeople to accomplish their sales goals or the number of sales calls made (e.g., Rapp et al. 2006). Past scholars have conceptualized that the utilization of technology tools improves salesperson efï ¬ ciency (Keillor, Barshaw, and Pettijohn 1997; Pullig, Maxham, and Hair 2002) and that technology assists salespeople in formulating a professional sales encounter (Marshall, Moncrief, and Lassk 1999). Salespeople can maintain direct contact, even with re mote customers, through e-mails and cell phones, thus saving travel hours. They can receive and manage orders from customers in an easy, timely fashion. Various SFA applications (e.g., calendaring; routing tables) inject activeness in salespeople’s typical sales routines and reduce downtime. Salespeople, in today’s competitive environment, face a great deal of data that include information about distributors, dealers, retailers, and ultimately, the end customer. In addition to this, salespeople need to keep track of competitor’s activities as well as product market situations. Notably, SFA  tools provide answers to salespeople in such complex data utilization and management scenarios. Different application tools, spreadsheets, Web browsers, inventory management software, and other database software enable salespeople to manage the records of products, competitors, and customers in timely manner. Hence, salespeople using SFA tools will be more organized and able to complete their schedules on time (Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp 2005). One key representation of salespeople’s efforts to realize their job objectives is the activity through which they complete their tasks (Brown and Peterson 1994). The use of SFA reduces â€Å"the amount of time spent on such activities as managing contacts, scheduling sales calls, developing sales plans, and planning sales routes† (Widmier, Jackson, and McCabe 2002, p. 190). Also, salespeople using SFA tools can cut down work hours doing paperwork and other reporting-related tasks (Colombo 1994; Parathasarathy and Sohi 1997). Importantly, these administrative tasks (e.g., sales reporting) are non-customer-centric activities (Geiger and Turley 2006);  however, salespeople spend many hours completing them. Thus, reductions in such activities, with the help of SFA, will provide salespeople with an opportunity to reduce their working ho urs. Formally stated,  Hypothesis 1: Relative to salespeople reporting lower use of SFA, salespeople reporting higher use of SFA will report fewer hours of work. Underlining the importance of CRM usage, Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp (2005) argued that such technology tools aid salespeople by managing information about a larger number of customers. Salespeople equipped with such valuable information are able to relate to customers without as much difï ¬ culty and can be more responsive to critical issues, thereby shortening the duration of each sales encounter. They will also complete tasks with less effort (Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp 2005). Mostly, CRM tools make customers’ cross-referencing possible among different departments within an organization that can generate more sales potential and reduce efforts by evading multiple attempts on the same prospective clients (Widmier, Jackson, and McCabe 2002). Moreover, the use of CRM tools will ease the processes of presale planning activities and improve the accuracy of sales forecasts, speeding up the overall sales process (Hunter and Perreault 2006). Parallel to this thought, it is pragmatic to think that salespeople using CRM tools will not ï ¬ nd examining customer data to be an overly complex and time-consuming process. Moreover, they can promptly focus on vital information, which, in turn, enables them to develop winning strategies in shorter time. We believe that salespeople equipped with CRM technology will be able to conserve their efforts by speeding the process of strategy development. CRM use will help salespeople conï ¬ gure product offerings per customer stipulations without showing extra efforts (Widmier, Jackson, and McCabe 2002). Under these circumstances, salespeople will be able to decrease their efforts by investing less time in the formulation of customer relationship strategies, reducing backorders, and lessening the number of calls required to ï ¬ nalize a sale (Columbo 1994; Thetgyi 2000). Based on this, we hypothesize: Hypothesis 2: Relative to salespeople reporting lower use of CRM, salespeople reporting higher use of CRM will report fewer hours of work. Adaptive Selling Adaptive selling is  deï ¬ ned as â€Å"engaging in planning to determine the suitability of sales behaviors and activities that will be undertaken, the capacity to engage in a wide range of selling behaviors and activities, and the alteration of sales behaviors and activities in keeping with situational considerations† (Sujan, Weitz, and Kumar 1994, p. 40). In more ge neral terms, adaptive selling can be deï ¬ ned as an approach to personal selling in which selling behaviors are altered during the sales interaction or across customer interactions, based on information about a customer and nature of the selling situation. Acquisition, analysis, and use of customer information are particularly important for salespeople in demonstrating adaptive selling behaviors (Weitz, Sujan, and Sujan 1986). Moreover, if salespeople have precise customer information, they will be more capable of practicing such behaviors (Hunter and Perreault 2006). CRM tools can also aid salespeople in tracking customer purchase patterns and enabling them to recognize potentially viable customers. Salespeople, with the help of CRM technology, can obtain critical customer information to successfully plan an effective sales encounter (Ahearne et al. 2008). CRM tools will be useful for keeping salespeople informed as well as for developing, implementing, or revising sales planning. Such customer database systems provide opportunities to meticulously research customers and design their sales presentations according to particular customer needs and wants (Marshall, Moncrief, and Lassk 1999). Equipped with sound customer information, salespeople will better anticipate customer responses, prepare appropriate ways to meet customer needs, and overcome customer objections. We propose that CRM tools provide access to customer information that enables salespeople to improve or enhance their adaptive selling skills. Based on this argument, we hypothesize: Hypothesis 3: Salespeople’s use of the CRM technology will be positively related with their adaptive selling behaviors. Experience as a Moderator Salesperson’s experience has been deï ¬ ned as a composite of three different areas: the employee’s general sales experience, the amount of time spent working with their current company, and the time spent in their territory (Rapp et al. 2006). Previous studies document the positive relationship of experience with different individual outcomes. For example,  individual’s performance adaptability has been associated positively with greater amounts of rel evant work experience (Pulakos et al. 2000). It has been argued that individuals seeking knowledge usually carry dissimilar wants and expectations (Markus 2001). This idea is especially applicable in a personal selling context, where no single formula or approach can guarantee success of every salesperson. Salespeople with different breadth and depth of experience will have different abilities and expectations. Within this research study, we suggest that less-experienced salespeople, even if they use sales technology tools (i.e., SFA and CRM), will be less likely to exploit such tools in a better way, relative to more experienced salespeople. Importantly, our research differs from the previous work of Ko and Dennis (2004) in that we examine different dimensions of technology use as well as behavioral outcomes of the technology/experience interaction rather than outcome-based performance. Thus, our hypotheses differ according to our proposed arguments.  Sales researchers agree that the uses of CRM technology tools are essential for making customer alliances; however, individual characteristics can affect this process (Jones, Sundaram, and Ch in 2002). Because CRM is used in crafting customer relationship strategies, salespeople’s experience will play a critical role in the relationship between CRM utilization and adaptive selling behaviors. CRM will provide valuable customer information; however, to be successful in utilizing such information, salespeople need to have a â€Å"deep base of organizational, contextual, and domain knowledge† (Ko and Dennis 2004, p. 313) and be well versed in handling difï ¬ cult objections. Salespeople with relatively less experience will have had less exposure to the capabilities of CRM tools, and a lower level of understanding about adaptive selling. With the lack of knowledge regarding various tasks and selling situations, less-experienced salespeople will be less capable of exploiting the rich data available in a CRM repository. Experienced salespeople are more likely to maintain focus on the task-related  activities, identify and realize the link between CRM tools utilization an d adaptive selling behaviors, and smartly engage in activities relevant to task completion. To sum, we argue that more-experienced salespeople will employ information toward formulating plans in a better way that helps them to practice adaptive selling than those salespeople with less experience. Based on these arguments, we propose that Hypothesis 4: The relationship between use of CRM and adaptive selling will be more positive for employees who report higher levels of experience, as compared to those who report lower levels of experience. In the case of technology use, it has been argued that the inï ¬â€šuence of technology is moderated by contextual variables (Orlikowski 1992). It seems especially true in a situation where technology is being used as a tool to formulate strategies or as a medium to support routine tasks. Experienced salespeople are more likely to have created an optimal schedule (i.e., necessary efforts required to accomplish maximum output), and given the strategic utilization of CRM, they can further cut down their efforts to achieve sales objectives. Consistent with the arguments of Hunter and Perreault (2006), we argue that more-experienced salespeople have learned the necessary skills to execute different activities. We also suggest that moreexperienced salespeople have discovered ways to reduce their levels of effort while maintaining their higher levels of performance, relative to those with less experience. Importantly, for those who have already adopted technology, more-experienced sales representatives will feel the greatest inï ¬â€šuence on their behavioral outcomes. Formally stated, Hypothesis 5: The relationship between use of CRM and effort will be more negative for employees who report higher  levels of experience, as compared to those who report lower levels of experience. Salesperson Performance In a general sense, job performance is an outcome of effort and strategy (Bandura 2002). Sales literature has recognized the signiï ¬ cance of salesperson efforts in different theoretical frameworks of performance (Walk er, Churchill, and Ford 1977) and proposed a signiï ¬ cant positive relationship between effort and adaptive selling behaviors and salesperson’s productivity (Sujan, Weitz, and Sujan 1988). Previous literature enjoys a relatively wide consensus about the critical role of effort and adaptability in achieving high performance objectives. To  this point, numerous researchers have examined the links between performance and adaptive selling and effort (Anglin, Stohlman, and Gentry 1990; Brown and Peterson 1994; Goolsby, Lagace, and Boolrom 1992; Holmes and Srivastava 2002; Predmore and Bonnice 1994; Sujan, Weitz, and Kumar 1994). Within this research study, we revisit these links and offer that, parallel to previous ï ¬ ndings, both salesperson behaviors of adaptive selling and effort will demonstrate unique positive relationships with their performance. Hypothesis 6: Salesperson effort will be positively related with salesperson performance. Hypothesis 7: Salesperson adaptive selling behaviors will be positively related with salesperson performance. RESEARCH METHOD Sample Our sample was drawn from the human health-care segment of a medium-sized pharmaceutical company. Data were collected from three separate sources in the form of salesperson surveys, manager surveys, and archival job performance data from company records. Sales representatives in this ï ¬ rm were responsible for marketing directly to physicians within a speciï ¬ c geographical area. All sales representatives were responsible for a particular portfolio of products and completed training for each product line. In sum, 900 sales representatives of the human health-care division of the company were contacted for this study. Usable survey responses were obtained from 662 (74 percent) of the representatives and from 60 different sales managers. There was an average of 11 sales representatives per manager. Respondents completed and returned a questionnaire mailed directly to them by the researchers. Management’s strong endorsement of questionnaire completion via e-mail and telephone, coupled with two waves of mailings, led to the high  response rate. The sample was 40 percen t male, the average age was 34.9 (standard deviation [SD] = 4.6), and 91 percent reported their ethnicity as Caucasian. Measures Use of SFA SFA usage was assessed by the sales representative using a fouritem scale. The scale asked sales representatives the amount of usage on four speciï ¬ c SFA applications. All four items were representative of tasks that helped salespeople streamline or automate some of the basic processes and functions of the sales tasks. Item responses were  anchored by (1) â€Å"I do not use this technology at all† and (7) â€Å"I use this technology to a great extent.† The scale demonstrated acceptable reliability (ÃŽ ± = 0.72). See the Appendix for a complete list of scale items. Use of CRM Similar to the above, CRM usage was assessed by asking the salesperson four questions regarding his or her use of technologies that helped manage customer relationships. These questions were speciï ¬ c to the software and database applications that the ï ¬ rm had in place. Again, item responses were anchored by (1) â€Å"I do not use this technology at all† and (7) â€Å"I use this technology to a great extent.† The scale demonstrated acceptable rel iability (ÃŽ ± = 0.75). Effort Salesperson effort was measured as a self-report item assessing average number of hours worked per week. Although not an ideal evaluation tool, this approach is similar to other research that has demonstrated that self-report evaluations are often representative of objective measures of evaluations (Sharma, Rich, and Levy 2004). Adaptive Selling Adaptive selling was measured using a shortened four-item scale stemming from the adaptive selling scale originally developed by Spiro and Weitz (1990). Items were adapted slightly to ï ¬ t the speciï ¬ c selling context. This measure was assessed by the sales manager and exhibited strong reliability (ÃŽ ± = 0.90). In this setting, sales managers have frequent contact with their salespeople. By meeting with sales representatives, conducting customer follow-up visits, and participating in ride-alongs, we argue that the sales manager can observe the behavior of the salesperson, in this circumstance, adaptive selling tendencies. Experience Experience was a composite measure consisting of three separate measures of sales experience. Sales representatives were questioned about the length of time they had worked in their territory, for their company, and in a sales ï ¬ eld. These scores were each z-scored and then averaged to form an overall experience index. Salesperson Performance We operationalized salesperson performance as the outcomebased measure of percentage of quota. Percentage of quota achieved is deï ¬ ned as the total sales brought to a close by a salesperson relative to the sales organization’s sales targets for that individual. Percent of quota, or total sales divided by expected sales target, is a strong measure of sales representative performance because it controls for some potential contaminating factors such as territory size  (Churchill et al. 1985). Sales representatives’ quotas are annually set by a consulting company, in conjunction with corporate sales management, and are based on market information and company records. Quotas are discussed with sales representatives to ensure that the representatives understand the methods used to set their annual quotas. Analytical Strategy We analyzed our data using a covariance-based structural equation modeling package, AMOS 5.0 (Arbuckle 1997). In evaluating this model, we followed the procedures recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). First, we conducted a conï ¬ rmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine the adequacy of the measurement component of the proposed model and evaluate discriminant validity. After ensuring an appropriate ï ¬ t, we then derived the full structural model from our hypotheses. To gauge model ï ¬ t, we report the comparative ï ¬ t index (CFI) (Bentler 1990) and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) (Hu and Bentler 1999). The CFI has been identiï ¬ ed as a strong approximation of the population value for a single model, with values ≠¥ 0.90 considered indicative of good ï ¬ t. SRMR is a measure of the standardized difference between the observed and unobserved covariance and predicted covariance, with values ≠¤ 0.08 considered a â€Å"relatively good ï ¬ t for the model,† and values ≠¤ 0.10 considered â€Å"fair† (Hu and Bentler 1999). Based on an exploratory and follow-up CFA, we determined that all items loaded signiï ¬ cantly on their respective factors and no cross-loadings were present. Each indicator exhibited a highly signiï ¬ cant estimate (p 0.001), which suggests high convergent validity (Gerbing and Anderson 1988). Also, discriminant validity was assessed according to the Fornell and Larcker (1981) suggested approach. By examining the amount of variance extracted for each of the latent constructs and comparing this to the squared correlations among the constructs, we found that the shared variance among any two constructs was always less than the average variance explained by the construct, which suggests that discriminant validity has been achieved. Finally, because four of the variables were collected from the same source,  we conducted checks for common method variance, which could inï ¬â€šate any observed correlations between the dependent and independent variables. As suggested by Grifï ¬ th and Lusch (2007), we used a CFA approach to assess Harman’s one-factor test. To do this, one would create a single latent factor for all same-source indicators as an alternative explanation to our results. Based on our analysis, our measurement model ï ¬ t yielded a χ2 of 295.61 (88), p 0.01; CFI = 0.93; SRMR = 0.04. By ï ¬ tting the same-source factor model, our ï ¬ t was signiï ¬ cantly worse with a χ2 of 789.53 (101); p 0.01; CFI = 0.77; SRMR = 0.08. Second, we employed the partial correlation procedure of including a marker variable (i.e., a variable not theoretically related to at least one other variable in the study). By using a measure of sales ethics as the marker variable, we found no signiï ¬ cant relationships to other variables in the model. These analyses indicate that our structural equation analysis is not as susceptible to an inherent common method bias in the responses to the survey. Table 1 provides descriptive statistics and pairwise correlations for this study. As mentioned, model ï ¬ t for the measurement model was good (χ2 = 295.61 (88), p 0.01; CFI = 0.93; SRMR = 0.04). Next, we ï ¬ t a linear effects model that amounts to the hypothesized model depicted in Figure 1 minus the two interactions (i.e., H4 and H5). This model was ï ¬ t in order to test the linear relationships. This model also serves as a baseline model for tests of the interactions. Notably, the linear relationships between experience and both adaptive selling and effort, although not hypothesized, were included in this model so as to serve as a baseline for the hypothesized model. To test the interaction effects, CRM usage and experience were both mean-centered (by virtue of using z-scores) so as to reduce effects of multicollinearity. We then calculated a multiplicative interactive term between the two variables and ï ¬ t a second model that included this product as an antecedent of both effort and adaptive selling. Because the linear effects model is nested in the hypothesized model, a signiï ¬ cant Δχ2 between them indicates that one or both of the interactions are signiï ¬ cant (Cortina, Chen, and Dunlap 2001). To note, we speciï ¬ ed the relationship between the observed scores and their respective latent variables by ï ¬ xing the measurement error terms for each co nstruct at (1 – rxx) times the variance of each scale score. Following procedures advanced by Mathieu, Tannenbaum, and Salas (1992) and supported  by Cortina,  Chen, and Dunlap (2001), the reliability of the interaction term was estimated using the formula presented by Bohrnstedt and Marwell (1978). RESULTS We derived the full structural model from our hypotheses. Structural model ï ¬ t was within acceptable limits (χ2 = 240.21 (95), p 0.01; CFI = 0.95; SRMR = 0.04) (see Table 2). Although the χ2-statistic is signiï ¬ cant, it is not always the best indication of model ï ¬ t (e.g., Bagozzi and Yi 1988), because it has the drawback of being sensitive to sample size and the number of parameters in the model. Notably, our initial ï ¬ ndings show that SFA usage is negatively related to effort (H1: ÃŽ ² = –0.123, p 0.05) and that CRM usage does not have a negative relationship with effort as originally hypothesized (H2: ÃŽ ² = 0.091). As expected, the linear effect of CRM usage to adaptive selling was positive and signiï ¬ cant (H3: ÃŽ ² = 0.122, p 0.05). Finally, although not hypothesized, the linear effect of experience to effort (ÃŽ ² = 0.166, p 0.01) and adaptive selling (ÃŽ ² = 0.106, p 0.05) were both signiï ¬ cant. Next, we tested the hypothesized model. By adding the interaction terms, we found that the model demonstrated an excellent ï ¬ t (χ2 = 233.53 (93), p 0.01; CFI = 0.95; SRMR = 0.04) and was a signiï ¬ cant improvement over the linear effects model (Δχ2 (2) = 6.68, p 0.05). The moderating effect of experience on CRM usage to effort was not present (H5: ÃŽ ² = 0.083); however, the moderating inï ¬â€šuence of experience on the relationship between CRM and adaptive selling was evident (H4: ÃŽ ² = 0.112, p 0.05). The ï ¬ nal portion of our model examined both adaptive selling and effort as predictors of salesperson performance. We found that both effort (H6: ÃŽ ² = 0.115, p 0.05) and adaptive selling (H7: ÃŽ ² = 0.086, p 0.05) had signiï ¬ cant relationships with performance. As a post hoc analysis, we included experience as an additional predictor of performance and found that it exhibited a signiï ¬ cant relationship (ÃŽ ² = 0.107, p 0.05), while not changing the levels of signiï ¬ cance of the other two variables. The proportions of variance of the endogenous variables accounted for were as follows: R ²Effort = 0.047; R ²Adaptive selling = 0.034; and R ²Performance = 0.031. To interpret the nature of the interaction, we plotted it using standard practices (Aiken and West 1991). Speciï ¬ cally, using the information from the moderated regression analysis, we plotted the relationship between  CRM usage that correspond to the average, low (one SD below the mean) and high (one SD above the mean) values of the experience moderator (see Figure 2). Corresponding to our expectations, we ï ¬ nd that CRM usage has a positive linear effect on adaptive selling and that increased levels of experience enhance this relationship as demonstrated by the steeper slope (more positive) for high-experience salespeople.

A Report On Bios And Cmos Computer Science Essay

A Report On Bios And Cmos Computer Science Essay This is a written assignment where students are required to write a report on BIOS and CMOS. Describe the different types of BIOS and CMOSs and what are the current technologies and models for BIOS and CMOSs. Students can also address what are the possible symptoms for BIOS and CMOSs failures and how to fix them. Plagiarism Detector: http://www.plagiarismdetect.com. All you need to do is paste/upload your document file and hit the analyze button. It will map the document with any available online resources. Students are required to print and attach the outcome in their report (acceptable percentage of similarity: BIOS is the short form of Basic Input Output System program that starts when you turn on your computer. It checks all of your hardware to ensure they all have power and are working. BIOS is actually firmware, the software that is programmed into a ROM (Read-Only Memory) chip on the motherboard of a computer. BIOS is something that makes the system run on an initial Power-On Self-Test of the computer, initialize circuits, load the boot program from the startup disk, and then handle low-level I/O peripheral controllers such as keyboard and screen. It has several different categories; you can see your BIOS by paying attention to the screen when it first starts up, there will be a screen with few seconds duration. The BIOS is typically placed in a ROM chip that comes with the computer (it is often called the BIOS ROM). This ensures that the BIOS will always be available and will not be damaged by disk failures. It also makes it possible for a computer to boot itself. Because RAM is faster than ROM, however, many computer systems design manufacturers so that the BIOS is copied from ROM to RAM each time the computer is started. This is known as shadowing. Many modern PCs have flash BIOS, which means that the BIOS have been recorded on a flash memory chip, which can be updated if necessary. The PC BIOS is fairly standardized, so all PCs are similar at this level (although there are different BIOS versions). Other DOS functions are usually added through software modules. This means you can upgrade to a newer version of DOS without changing the BIOS.PC BIOS that can handle Plug and Play (PnP) are known as PnP BIOS-es, or PnP BIOS current. These BIOS-es are always implemented with flash memory rather than ROM. CMOS Semiconductor complementary metal oxide (CMOS) is a type of semiconductor chip that holds data without requiring external power source. In a personal computer (PC), CMOS has the basic instructions the computer needs to initialize its hardware and start-up. These settings are known as the basic parameters of input-output system (BIOS), also called the CMOS settings. CMOS control a variety of functions, including the Power on Self Test (POST). When the computer power switched on, CMOS will run a series of controls to ensure that the system works properly. One of these controls includes counting memory (RAM). This start-up time delays, so some people disable this feature in the CMOS settings, opting for a quick start. If you install new RAM, it is preferable to activate until the RAM has been verified. Once POST has completed, CMOS runs through its other settings. Hard drives and formats are detected and Redundant Array of Independent Disk (RAID) configurations, the start-up preferences, the presence of peripheral and tweaks for over clocking. Many parameters can be changed manually in the CMOS setup screen to improve performance. However, changes must be made by experienced users. Changing the settings wrong can make the system unstable, causing accidents, or even prevent the computer from starting. The CMOS setup screen is accessed during the POST phase mode, by pressing a button before the operating system boots. Normally it is the Delete key but it could be another. A line of text will indicate which button the user in the CMOS or BIOS setup screen. Changes can be made from an operating system like Microsoft Windows, but must be done in a true DOS session. There is also an option to protect the CMOS settings by requiring a password to change settings. The changes are saved to the output by pressing the F10 key, and then the computer restarts to use the new settings. The system uses what is called a CMOS Checksum error code as a detector. Whenever you change the BIOS settings, the checksum is generated by adding all the bytes in the CMOS memory, then store the lowest byte of the sum. Then, whenever the system is booted, the system recalculates the checksum and compares the stored value. If they are different, the system knows that the CMOS has been corrupted in some way and will notify you via an error, usually something like CMOS Checksum Error. There are many different types of batteries used to power the CMOS, for the most part; they have evolved over time as technology has evolved. These batteries are discussed here. You will not normally deal with the CMOS memory directly; it contains the parameters that you enter the BIOS setup. Over time, it is possible that you have problems CMOS, for example, you may find that the machine can begin to forget its settings when it is started. These are usually signs of problems with the battery on the moth erboard. (Figure-1) (Figure-2) (Figure-3) CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES AND MODELS FOR BIOS AND CMOS BIOS Version 5020 SOX5810J.86A.5020.2010.0224.0938 About This Release: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ February 24, 2010 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ SATA RAID Option ROM: 8.9.0.1023 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ LAN Option ROM: Intel(R) Boot Agent PXE GE v1.3.24 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ LAN Option ROM: Intel(R) Boot Agent PXE Base Code (PXE-2.1 build 086) New Fixes/Features: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Added support for Intels 6-core desktop processor, codenamed Gulftown. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed watchdog timer and host clock display issues for XTU2. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed issue that was causing IFlash and Express BIOS Update to fail on subsequent flash updates. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reduced pre-video boot time by about 7 seconds. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Added support to check the IOH stepping and if it is a B2 or earlier then set QPI Power Management default setting to disabled and if it is a B3 or later then set the default to enabled. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed setup option default setting for CPU C-States to be enabled and IMON to be disabled. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed issue with watchdog timer when running in the operating system and changing from one processor to another. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed XMP related issues: When an XMP profile was selected the host clock was unchangeable. When selecting Automatic mode the Uncore Multiplier was being set to 22 instead of the proper system default. When selecting Manual mode the minimum supported ratio between Memory Ratio and the Uncore Multiplier will be used based on the processor installed. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed issue where the PC Compliance bit was being set incorrectly causing Secondary Boot Request to cause some cards to fail to train correctly. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Set VT to be enabled by default. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed issue preventing greater than 160 for the Host Clock. BIOS Version 4598 SOX5810J.86A.4598.2009.1211.1321 About This Release: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ December 11, 2009 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ SATA RAID Option ROM: 8.9.0.1023 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ LAN Option ROM: Intel(R) Boot Agent PXE GE v1.3.24 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ LAN Option ROM: Intel(R) Boot Agent PXE Base Code (PXE-2.1 build 086) New Fixes/Features: *Other names and brands may be claimed as the property of others. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Added XTU 2.0 support. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed F9 default value for TDC, TDP, and Turbo Ratio. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed watchdog timer and host clock display issues for XTU2. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed a setup display issue for 5-Core Ratio Limit. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed a display issue with the Turbo Boost Technology in setup when a processor is installed that does not have 4 cores. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Updated processor support. BIOS Version 4405 SOX5810J.86A.4405.2009.1020.1419 About This Release: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ October 20, 2009 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ SATA RAID Option ROM: 8.9.0.1023 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ LAN Option ROM: Intel(R) Boot Agent PXE GE v1.3.24 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ LAN Option ROM: Intel(R) Boot Agent PXE Base Code (PXE-2.1 build 086) New Fixes/Features: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Updated processor support. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Enabled the selection of Video Device according to the Primary Video Adapter setup option. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Expanded the default size of the NVS memory allocation. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Blocked the on-board LAN PXE dispatch when on-board LAN is disabled. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed issue where the default video device was not set correctly if two video cards of same vendor and device id was present in system. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed issue where certain SATA RAID controller failed to boot according to the boot order. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed issue where system hangs at POST code 0xBA with two SATA optical drives attached and certain media in one drive. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fixed issue where certain SATA RAID controller failed to resume from S3. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Added feature to block compressed BMP files from use as a custom logo with Intel ® Integrator Toolkit. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Enabled BIOS Setup to always be reset even if iFlash2 is interrupted when /f flag is set. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BIOS AND CMOS? Many people use the term BIOS (Basic Input / Output System) and CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) interchangeably, but in reality, they are distinct, yet related, components of a computer. The BIOS is a computer program that starts up, and the CMOS is where the BIOS stores the date, time and details of system configuration needed to start the computer. The BIOS is a small program that controls the computer from the time it powers on, until the time the operating system takes over. The BIOS firmware, which means its, cannot store the variable data. CMOS is a type of memory technology, but most people use this term to refer to the chip that stores data variables for booting. A computers BIOS to initialize and control components such as controllers and hard disk drive and the computer hardware clock, but the specific parameters for the startup and initialization of components are stored in CMOS.In addition to the standard CMOS memory used to store system settings, BIOS Plug and Play use a nonvolatile memory upgrade to keep the extended system configuration data (ESCD). It is used to save the configurations of the devices of system resources when Plug and Play is used. Type of BIOS Phoenix IBM AMI Award Type of CMOS Battery Coin Cell Batteries PS2 Computer Clock Battery BIOS AND CMOSS FAILURES AND HOW TO FIX THEM CMOS checksum error mostly will occurs when CMOS values was incorrect. There is few option may occurs the failure as below. Bad or old CMOS battery. BIOS update. Removing power from the computer without shutting down the computer. POST errors. The Solution Bad or old CMOS battery: Try restarting the computer. If the error persists after restarting the computer to enter the CMOS setup and check all values, which include verifying the date and time are correct. Once everything has been checked and / or changed be sure to save and exit the CMOS setup. If everything looks correct and the problem persists try resetting the defaults in CMOS and / or Reset Configuration Data. Additional information on how to proceed can be found on document CH000976. Note: If this problem persists after you turn off your computer off, it is possible that the CMOS battery may be faulty or already ill. Before consider on replacing the CMOS battery to try to leave your computer on for several days. Additional information on replacing the CMOS battery can be found on document CH000239. Computer badly off: If the computer had been disconnected the power while still running it is possible that this may cause the CMOS to be corrupted. Make sure the computer is ready to be cut before turning off the computer. If you have a laptop so that battery is charged before disconnecting the electrical connection. If the CMOS values have been damaged by entering values in the CMOS setup and saving CMOS and the output should solve your problems. Additional information about entering the BIOS setup can be found on document CH000192. BIOS update recently completed: if youve recently released a BIOS update on the computer values stored in the CMOS can be reset. Enter CMOS setup and re-enter all the appropriate values. Additional information about entering the BIOS setup can be found on document CH000192.If you are unable to enter the BIOS or after the execution of a BIOS your computer is no longer values the incorrect BIOS update may have been installed on your computer or the downloaded version may be corrupted. We suggest you try to update the BIOS and / or go back to an earlier version. Additional assistance and information with the BIOS updates can be found on document CH000236. POST error: Each BIOS manufacturer has its own diagnostic codes to identify specific errors. You need to consult the documentation for specifying the BIOS beep codes. Many motherboard manufacturers will use code similar to the original IBM POST codes, which are summarized in the table below. If you get a single beep, all is good. In some cases, these beeps are also accompanied by a diagnostic code; you also look in the BIOS documentation. Beep Code IBM POST Beep Codes Description One short beep Normal POST System is Okay Two short beeps POST error Error code shown on-screen No beep Power supply or system board problem Continuous beep Power supply, system board or keyboard problem Repeating short beeps Power supply or system board problem One long and one short beeps System board problem One long an two short beeps Display adapter problem {MDA,CGA}

Is Rawlss Critique Of Utilitarianism Fair Philosophy Essay

Is Rawlss Critique Of Utilitarianism Fair Philosophy Essay The question we are going to deal with immediately draw my attention; as Rawls work on justice not only turns out to be theoretically relevant, but even particular considering the time it was published, it results being determinant from a historic point of view. Indeed A theory of justice was written in 1971, in these years as we know cold war reached its climax and contrast between the Soviet Union and the United States was severe. These conflicts implied not only a political (and fortunately not military) conflict, but at its deepest layer a difference in ideology, beliefs, thought. As well known the soviet model had its roots in Karl Marxs (1818-1883) communist philosophy while the western countries found their attachment mostly in utilitarianism. These philosophies oppose in its assumptions and appear not to be compatible witch each other. What Rawls proposes us is an innovating solution to conjugate social justice and utilitarianism in an innovating if not revolutionary theory of justice. He is considered to be the father of the third way among a centralized economy and laissez-faire. As previously anticipated the theory of justice also has a fundamental theoretical value as it marks the turning point in some very important and discussed conceptual differences which became part of nowadays political agenda. Rawls famous theory of justice criticized utilitarianism at its roots. After a brief introduction about the topic of discussion, my attention is going to focus on the basic ideas of utilitarianism as it is the philosophical theory which opposes most to Rawls theory of justice. We will then analyze Rawls attack to utilitarian philosophy as explained in his book: A theory of justice. Furthermore we will place our attention on the reasons why Rawlss judges utilitarianism wrong, and on other arguments against it. John Rawlss thought John Rawls is widely considered one of the most innovative and influential thinker of the twentieth century. Put in Amartya Sens words:By far the most influential and I believe the most important theory of justice to be presented in this century has been John Rawls Justice as fairness (Sen, 1992:p. 75) He was born in 1921 in the city of Baltimore, made his studies in Princeton and Oxford, before becoming a professor in one of the most known universities of the United States: Harvard. He is mostly known through his famous book A theory of justice (1971). The philosopher claims that justice is the first requisite of social institutions, just in the same way as the pursuit of truth is the final aim of any philosophy. His basic claim is that as a theory a needs to be discarded or at least changed in its missing parts if it is not true, in the same way institutions or laws have to be abolished or reformed if they are not fair. He goes on saying that even if society as a whole might profit from certain institution, they cannot be accepted and left in place if even only one person gets an unfair treatment as a consequence of their operation. Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For this reason justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good shared by others. It does not allow that the sacrifices imposed on a few are outweighed by the larger sum of advantages enjoyed by many.( Rawls, John A Theory of Justice  (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press), 1971, p 3.) As he defined his idea about justice, he wanted to give a rational foundation to it. He wanted to ensure that his justice assumptions were rational and shared by all members of society. Given the fact that individuals are different and have different aims in life it is necessary to find some principle which could be agreed on by all members. The way by which people could find a general agreement is very well known in philosophy and social sciences as public law. What is being referred to is the idea of original position and veil of ignorance. Part of its great success is due to the fascinating representation given by the author. He imagines a so called original position in which the single individuals decide the rules which will govern society. What is crucial is the fact that they do this choice in absolute ignorance concerning some relevant information of their future lives in society. The agreement is so being made in a condition of a veil of ignorance. This avoids the fact that some which might be born in a very rich family would obviously be against high income taxes to transfer some wealth to the worse off. The poor one on the other hand would definitely welcome such taxes as they could profit from them. The people making the choice are thus presented as rational and not interested in others. No one could get an advantage from the choice of certain principles which would advantage a certain category, as they would not know which role they are going to have in society. To sum up we can say that the veil of ignorance has to exclude people from the knowledge of facts which would bring them to have conflicts. Al the parties are equal in this position, indeed everyone would have the same rights in proposing rules and accepting them. The outcome of this decision leads to a fair agreement because it is conducted in fair conditions. This is the reason why this theory is known as justice as fairness. He states that the philosopher which contributed most to the development of his theory has been Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), since Kants ethic is based on the personal choice of free, rational and equal individuals. Therefore he arrives to claim that the principles of justice are to be seen as categorical imperatives in the Kantian way. Indeed by categorical imperative Kant means these moral principles which are to be rationally respected and accepted from a free and rational individual. Opposed to these we find hypothetical imperatives which are the ones which aim at certain specific goals. Concerning the principles which have to be expected from the decision take under the veil of ignorance, we should not consider them as defined principles for actions but as general guide lines for practical political decisions. It is to be noticed that some critics might emerge at this point, authors like Sen criticized the fact that exactly these principles would emerge from the contracting under the veil of ignorance: The outcome might be a different one. The first principle states the following: Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others. (Rawls, 1971) What is exactly meant as basic liberties has to be defined more precisely, indeed they are: a) The active and passive right to vote; the first refers to the possibility to choose a political actor according to our preferences (what is commonly understood as right to vote). The second one (passive right to vote) refers to the fact that we have the possibility to candidate for elections and possibility be elected. b) Liberty of conscience, which is basically the faculty to choose or decide by your own, your future life, your way of being and your own destiny. c) Freedom of speech and assembly, so the possibility to express your own ideas and make them public even if they do not fit and are not coherent with the current political situation and its majoritys ideas. The freedom of assembly indeed refers to the possibility to arrange political assemblies to discuss political and practical issues. d) Freedom to personal propriety, which is to be understood as the possibility to have the personal private propriety on your goods (although he states that the private propriety of means of production is not necessarily to be seen as a primary good). e) Freedom from arbitrary arrest, which means the fact that the public power has not the freedom to arbitrary (so without a reason), arrest individuals because they might oppose or disagree with the public power itself. The second principle: Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that (a) They are to be of the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society, consistent with the just savings principle (the difference principle). (b) Offices and positions must be open to everyone under conditions of  fair equality of opportunity (Rawls, 1971, p.302) The first part of the second principle (a) holds the idea that the first goal in a choice should be to maximize the least well off rather than to maximize in general. (Maximin) This means that arrangements which imply inequalities might only be accepted if they increase the position of the poorest too. It is well explained by this graphical representation: C:Documents and SettingsRoberta SimeoneDesktoprawls function.jpg This graph is to be interpreted as if there were two individuals; giving freedom to our imagination let us call them: 1 and 2. The social utility of both is to be measured on the 45 degree line in the point of interception with the L curve. A few of them are marked in increasing utility order to give a general idea, I Already this argument (Maximin) proves the effectiveness of Rawls critique to utilitarianism because it gives attention to the distribution of wealth rather than considering merely the sum of all the agents utilities. This will be clear in the paragraph about utilitarianism. The justification for this argument is due to the fact that the randomness of the condition in which one is born is not linked to a moral entitlement. For instance the financial conditions of ones family or even the talents one has are merely casual. That is why it is right to increase first the worse off who had been unlucky in the lottery of life. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism was mainly born by Jeremy Benthams (1748-1832) work. His biggest innovation compared to previous thinkers was to found moral philosophy on a rational basis. This reflects the theoretical innovations of his time, which is the scientific method brought by enlightenment. He therefore tried to make ethics an analytical science which can be proven by logical and mathematical principles. This philosophy is founded on the basic idea that actions should only be judged from the value of its outcome. The key point if we assume this way of thinking, becomes to define precisely how we might value the effects of our actions. We could try to value different things which we generally assumed as good, such as happiness, satisfaction, wealth or even simple pleasure. Not giving any value judgment about this methodology to chose the right action, it is already possible to note that this part is particularly problematic as all these things turn out to be extremely difficult (if not impossible) to measure. The general principle is the so called utility, according to utilitarian philosophers it can be measured by calculation and thus it allows us to compare between actions leading to higher and lower utility outcomes. Bentham believes it is possible to possible to calculate pain and pleasure by using equations, this should be the way to define utility according to the duration and the strength of a feeling (positive or negative). Founding this principle of utility is a general assumption believed to be true by utilitarianism, it is the fact that any activity leads to two basic feelings, which are pleasure and its opposite: pain. Judgment about how to act should only be left to these two. In Benthams words: that property in any object, whereby it tends to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happinessorto prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness  (Jeremy Bentham Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation  ,1789). As we saw in this paragraph this basic understanding of utilitarianism does not allow us to go beyond a personal, individualistic judgment. How should indeed societys utility be considered? The definition of utility states that it should be considered compared to the part whose interest is concerned. If we consider society as the interested party which might be societys interest? In this philosophy social utility is simple: the sum of all individuals utilities. (As we saw, Rawls position criticizes exactly this simplicity by which utilitarianism simplifies individuals and the general social utility. Which effectively is a fair argument against it). An individualistic approach by which each person maximizes its own utility does not appear to be compatible with collective utility. The way utilitarian philosophers think that it is possible to enforce public interest is trough legislation as a tool, the law should define the principles society wants to respect and the actions which maximize social utility. A well planned legislation will lead to harmonize individual interest to social one by making obedience to laws more convenient than breaking it. This means that the expected utility of committing an action against the law should be lower than the possible advantage to commit a crime. Indeed Bentham tried to find a way to define particularly the penal code, in this way anyone would know the punishment applied for breaking the law which would be leading to a lower utility than respecting it. To give another graphical representation to be compared to the Rawlsian one we can have a look at the following graph: C:Documents and SettingsRoberta SimeoneDesktopUtilità  ut.jpg Again we have our 1 and 2 (individuals) determining social utility, the parallel lines have again a slope of 45 degrees this time turned through 90 degrees. The social utility is on the interception where the two individual ones cross. We can note the fact that even if one has all and the other any (interception between x axis u1 and W1) we still stay on the same social utility: W1. Critical points in utilitarianism Utilitarianism was all but left without critics, already Benthams successor John Stuart Mills (1806-1873) who was the second innovator in utilitarianism started to criticize different approaches and assumption used by Bentham. Indeed Benthams approach used to be focused on the theory by which the public actor should act. Mills on the other hand was focusing more on the personal morality of actions. Compared to Bentham he assumes an approach which is more internal, he tries to focus on the psychology of the agent. Here we find the first critic to utilitarianism; Mills believes utility maximization assumption to be too narrow to explain agents choices. An interesting critique is the one moved by Bernard Williams (1929-2003) it is well explained by an anecdote by Williams himself known as Jim and the Indians: Jim finds himself in the central square of a small South American town. Tied up against the wall are twenty Indians, in front of several armed men in uniform. A heavy man in a sweat-stained khaki shirt turns out to be the captain in charge and () explains that the Indians are a random group of inhabitants who, after recent acts of protest against the government, are just about to be killed to remind other possible protesters of the advantage of not protesting. However, since Jim is an honoured visitor from another land, the captain is happy to offer him a guests privilege of killing one of the prisoners himself. If Jim accepts, then as a special mark of the occasion the other Indians will be let off. Of course, if Jim refuses, there will be no special occasion, and the captain will do what he was about to and kill them all. () The men are against the wall and the other villagers understand the situation and are obviously begging him to accept. What should he do? (B. Williams, A Critique of Utilitarianism in Smart Williams, Utilitarianism: For and Against, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1973) Since utilitarianism only considers the utility of the outcome of an action there is no choice. It is much better in terms of general utility to kill only one person rather than having 19 others been killed. This would simply be better because utilitarianism considers that each one counts for one and only one. What Williams argues is different: that it is not the same consequence if a person is killed by my direct action or if he is killed because of my indirect behavior, which in this case would be an act of not taking participation. Killing actively one person would not preserve our personal moral integrity because indeed we would have killed a human being. This would harm our own personal moral integrity even though it might be a better outcome in terms of social utility. That is the reason why this objection is known as the integrity objection. Rawls critique Rawls position is deeply against utilitarianism, as this philosophy is accepting to give up individual interests for majoritys ones. The utilitarian assumption that individual interest might be given up for society, is criticized even if the sacrifice of someones interest might lead to greater efficiency. For Rawls it is more important to ensure justice before efficiency. It is claimed to be wrong if the majority would get an advantage but the one who has to take the sacrifice is the worst of, and this is unjust. Accordingly, in a just society we have to assume equal citizen rights, which again according to him are an absolute right under any circumstance. The only admissible injustice would be the one which would prevent a worse injustice. The first critical point of utilitarianism he identifies is the fact that it tends to make the individual disappear. Utilitarianism has a very narrowed view of human beings only considering its utility, to the point that once the individual utility is calculated there is no other relevant information concerning the person. This kind of reduction leads utilitarianism to be a philosophy which is indifferent to identity and individuality of people. Further, another critical point is the one concerning distributive justice, utilitarianism tries to maximize the social outcome as a whole, what it still fails to take into account is the distribution of that utility.(As explained by the second graph). If we abstract and consider wealth as utility it does not make a difference it one individual has a lot and most others only a little: the general sum of all the utilities is still maximized. Between two actions, one leading to a utility of six for the first individual and an utility of one for the second, and another leading to three for each ,utilitarianism would choose the first because seven is greater than six. This is because all what matters is the sum of utility, although this leads to profound injustice. Finally he claims that each desire is to be calculated and compared to other desires although they might differ in their nature, what is to be understood as a qualitative versus quantitative difference. Conclusion What Rawls criticized in utilitarianism appears to be right for general principles of social welfare. Utilitarianism has to be awarded with the innovation to apply rationality to moral philosophy. Although it forgets the distribution of wealth problem. This latter one appears to be the most effective critique to utilitarianism. It is undeniable that the utilitarian view of each individual maximizing its own utility as he best believes also implies a higher grade of freedom of choice. This choices should thou be made in a way which is not interfering with social purposes. An action should not only be valued from the utility it brings to the single individual but society as a whole. Because in the end even the single individual is staying in society and thou being influenced from the status quo he stays in. Social welfare is not only profiting the ones who directly gain from it but the whole systems stability. Injustices are the seed of contrasts, the French aristocrats living the French Revolution might agree with this view. Not only is the critique effective but also fair on a moral basis. Society should not be led by individualistic principles, such an assumption would mean to put social morality on the same layer as individual one. But societies emerged from collaboration between individuals to achieve something more. This is the reason why the state should try to be better than individuals particularly concerning morality. On the other had it has to be stated that utilitarianism has the great advantage of being practical and effective to apply. The use of calculation implies an incredible advantage in terms of efficiency in decision-making. Further it is not clear why the two principles of justice should necessarily emerge from the original position, this is basically the critique moved to Rawls by many, among them Amartya Sen. The idea is that other principles might emerge from the choice made under the veil of ignorance.